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Significant Digits and Scien Fic Nota
Exercise 5: Significant Digits and Scien fic Nota on
Part 1: Determine the number of significant digits in each number and write out the specific significant digits.
405000
0.0098
39.999999
13.00
80,000,089
55,430.00
0.000033
620.03080
Part 2: Write the numbers below in scien fic nota on, incorpora ng what you know about signifi‐
cant digits.
70,000,000,000
0.000000048
67,890,000
70,500
450,900,800
0.009045
0.023
Lab 2: Types of Forces
27
Lab 2: Types of Forces
Mo on is an elementary concept of physics. It is what happens when an object changes posi on and is produced by a force (a push or pull on the object). Kinema cs is the study of how things move. Because we deal so much with moving objects in the world, kinema cs is one of the most important and visual areas in physics. It is important to remember that mo on is rela ve. Even when we stand s ll, we are s ll moving. The Earth that we stand on is rota ng and thus we are s ll moving. Nonetheless, it is of great value to measure how things move. Velocity is a measure of how fast something is moving in a specific direc on (velocity is commonly called speed, but the two terms have an important difference). Expressed as a ra o, velocity is the distance an object covers over an elapsed me. Since we don’t know how much the object has accelerated or decelerated in between measurements, this ra o will give us an average velocity:
Figure 1: Surprisingly, light and heavy objects fall at the same rate when there is no air resistance. If these two objects were dropped in a vacuum, both would hit the
ground at the same me.
Concepts to explore: · Kinema cs
v = Δx Δt
28
Lab 2: Types of Forces
Here, the value Δx is called the displacement, which is another word for the total change in posi on measured in a straight line from an object’s star ng point to its ending point. (Note: Δ is the Greek symbol for ‘change’ and represents a calcula on of the final measurement subtracted by the ini al measurement). Velocity can be measured as an average over me—as above—or at a single moment (instantaneous velocity). Velocity differs from our normal understanding of speed in that it requires a known direc on. For example, if a car is driving 30 mph at a moment in me, we know its speed; but, if we say it is going 30 mph west, we know the velocity at that point. Constant velocity requires both constant speed and constant direc on. Accelera on occurs when an object undergoes a change in velocity. Therefore, accelera on occurs when an object’s speed, direc‐ on of travel, or both change :
When you press the gas pedal in your car while driving on a straight road, you will experience linear accelera on. The force of the seat pressing against your back indicates this change in velocity. If you are driving around a turn, your speed may be constant but your direc on is changing. Fric on between the road and your res is causing you to accelerate into a new direc on of mo on. All accelera ons are caused by forces—more specifically, unbalanced forces. There are many types of forces that can act on an object, characterized by the type of interac on between objects.
al force depends on the size of the masses and the distance between them (Fgravity=m ·g). Gravity is a long‐range force which is rela vely weak, but it can have great effects when objects are very massive—such as planets!
Figure 2: Scalar quan es express magnitudes, while vector quan es ex‐ press magnitude and direc on.
Scalar: Average Speed = 10 m/s
Vector: Velocity = 10 m/s at 30°
a = Δv Δt
29
Lab 2: Types of Forces
on each surface collide, impeding each other’s mo on. A specialized fric on force when an object is in free fall is air resistance, which is affected by the speed of an object and its cross‐sec onal area. Though it can never cause an object to move, it can check or stop mo‐ on. As resistance, fric on wastes power, creates heat and causes wear. It has been shown
that the force required to slide one object over another is propor onal to the normal force pressing the surfaces together, expressed by the equa on shown below: Ff = μFN where μ is called the coefficient of fric on and represents the roughness of the surfaces in contact. There are two types of fric on, sta c (not moving) fric on and kine c (moving) fric on. They have unique coefficients of fric on, μs
and μk, respec vely. In general, μs ≥ μk.
the spring, expressed by the equa on below:
Fs=‐k∆x The SI unit for force is the Newton (N), where 1 N = 1 kg·m/s
(the lb is the English unit). In other words, it
takes 1 N of force to accelerate a 1 kg mass by 1 m/s 2 .
If you are given a mass in kilograms, all you need to do to find the force (N) is to mul ply the mass by the accelera on due to gravity, g = 9.8 m/s
. Take a
look at Figure 5 for an example. Another measurement of force you are familiar with is the pound (lb), but scien sts usually s ck with the SI units of measurement. When a number of forces act on an object at once, it is helpful to draw a free body diagram (FBD). Free body diagrams show all the forces ac ng on an object as arrows. For now, we will only talk about forc‐ es that point in the horizontal or ver cal direc ons. Since forces are vector quan es, when they add together, we must take into account both magnitude and direc on. For example, if a 5 N force acts to the le on an object, and at the same me an 8 N force acts to the right, the total force or net force would be 3 N to the right. Using FBDs, you can visualize which forces will cancel others out. When you draw a FBD, each object of interest is drawn (you can draw the object, or even a box or point to represent the object), and each force is represented by an arrow. The length of the arrow rep‐ resents that magnitude of the force, and the direc on of the arrow indicates the direc on the force is ac ng upon the object. This way, you can visualize which forces will cancel out others, leaving a total net force in one direc on. If all the forces cancel each other out (for instance, equal but opposite forc‐ es in the ver cal and horizontal direc ons) the object is said to be in sta c equilibrium—the net force is equal to zero, even though there are many forces ac ng at once.
Figure 3: Despite gravity’s weakness as a force, it is responsible for the ball shape of planets and stars, and for the shape of galaxies. Masses within these structures a ract every other bit of mass within
the object, which creates their ball shape.
30
Lab 2: Types of Forces
Consider a book si ng on a table. If you apply a force to slide it across the table to your study partner, there are actually four forces involved in the mo on. The FBD would involve the normal force, gravity, the applied force and fric on, and the diagram is shown in Figure 4. The normal force arrow is drawn perpendicular to the surface, directly opposite the force of gravity in this case. We know the object is not moving in the ver cal direc on, so the ver cal forces are equal but in opposite direc ons and can‐ cel out on the net force diagram. Since enough force was applied to overcome fric on and move the book, we draw the applied force arrow longer than the fric onal force arrow that acts to resist mo on. The applied force is greater than the fric on force, so the net force is in the direc on of the applied force. This object will accelerate to the right. When an object is not moving in the horizontal or ver cal direc on, the sum of the forces must equal zero in that direc on (∑F=0).
Figure 4: The le figure is an example of a typical free body diagram (FBD) with a variety of forces labeled. The normal force (Fnorm) and the force due to gravity (Fgrav) must be equal and opposite because the object is not falling into the surfaces or accelera ng into the air. The applied force Fapp is larger than the force due to fric‐ on, so the net overall force Fnet points to the right‐‐shown on the reduced FBD on the right. The normal force
is not always directly opposite the force of gravity, as with an object res ng on an incline.
Figure 5: The 1 kg mass on the le is supported by a rope drawn around a pulley and anchored to a flat sur‐ face. The free body diagram on the right shows the case of sta c equilibrium: the force of gravity is balanced out
by the tension in the string. In FBDs only the forces ac ng direc onally on the object of interest ma er!
Figure 6: The two masses (weights labeled) are sus‐ pended by a single rope through a pulley wheel. The right side is a free body diagram for each mass; note that the tension in the string is the same on each side (in other words, the string does not stretch). The net force is upward on the 5 N mass and downward on the
8 N mass—which way will the assembly move?
31
Lab 2: Types of Forces
The following experiments will demonstrate the effects of balanced and unbalanced forces. You will draw Free Body Diagrams to analyze the balance of forces and use simple kinema c equa ons to calcu‐ late velocity and accelera on.
Experiment 1: Fric on When two materials are in contact with each other, the fric on between them acts to impede mo on. Fric on is always a reac on force, meaning fric on never causes an object to move by itself. Instead, fric on acts to oppose applied forces. The equa on used to calculate the force of fric on is:
Ff = μFN
where Ff is the force of fric on, μ is the coefficient of fric on which represents the roughness of the surface, and FN is the normal force. On a horizontal surface, FN = ‐mg, and the equa on becomes:
Ff = ‐μmg
In this lab you will demonstrate this rela onship between the normal force, FN, and the force of fric‐ on, Ff.
Figure 7: Since the force that team 1 exerts on team 2 is equal and opposite to the reac on force that team 2 exerts on team 1, how can anyone ever win a tug of war? If no accelera on is occurring, the
game is in a state of equilibrium.
32
Lab 2: Types of Forces
Procedure 1. Use Steps 2 ‐ 5 to complete the experiment with the plas c, Styrofoam, and paper cups. Begin with
the plas c cup, then use the Styrofoam cup, and conclude with the paper cup. Record the force readings on the spring scale for each trial in Table 1.
NOTE: For the paper cup, use smaller amounts of water as indicated in Table 1
Tie the string around the outside edge of the cup, leaving some slack. Tie a loop at the end of the string.
Fill the cup with 300 mL of water (1 mL water = 1 g water). Place the materials on a smooth, flat surface (be sure to use the same surface for each trial). Record a descrip on of the surface in Table 1.
Hook the spring scale to the string. Pull on the scale gradually un l the cup starts to slide at a con‐ stant speed. Record the value of the force (Fapp) as the cup starts to move in Table 1. Repeat four more mes.
Using the same cup, empty the cup and fill it back up with 150 mL of water. Measure the force re‐ quired to slide the cup. Repeat the process four more mes (as done in Step 4 with the 300 mL of water).
Average the data for the Force Applied (spring scale readings) columns and record your results in Table 1.
Materials Styrofoam cup Plas c cup Paper cup String Spring Scale
33
Lab 2: Types of Forces
Please submit your table data and answers for this experiment on the Word document provided to you.
Cup Material Force Applied F1 m1 = 300 g water
Force Applied F2 m2 = 150 g water
F1 / FN1 F2 / FN2
Plas c
Avg: Avg: Avg: Avg:
Styrofoam
Avg: Avg: Avg: Avg:
Paper
F1 m1 = 150 g water
F2 m1 = 100 g water
F1 / FN1 F2 / FN2
Avg: Avg: Avg: Avg:
Surface Descrip on
Table 1: Applied force required to slide cup
34
Lab 2: Types of Forces
Ques ons 1. What happened to your applied force Fapp as you decreased the amount of water in the cup? 2. Assume the mass to be exactly equal to the mass of water. Calculate the normal force (FN) for 300
g, 150 g, and 100 g. Use these values to compute the ra o of the Applied Force (Fapp) to the Nor‐ mal Force (Fn). Place these values in the rightmost column of Table 1.
What do these last two columns represent? What is the ra o of the normal forces F1 / F300? Com‐ pare this to your values for F2/ F150, and F3/F100. What can you conclude about the ra o between the Force Normal and the Force Fric on? FN= mg FN (300 g) = _________kg × 9.8 m/s
= ___________
FN (150 g) = _________kg × 9.8 m/s 2 = ___________
FN (100 g) = _________kg × 9.8 m/s 2 = ___________
diagram sliding each type of cup (a total of three diagrams). Label the Force Gravity (=mg), the Nor‐ mal Force (FN), and the Fric on Force (Ff), but don’t use any specific numbers. What makes this a state of equilibrium?
Does it take more force to slide an object across a surface if there is a high value of μ or a low one? Explain your answer
Significant Digits and Scien Fic Nota
Score | Evaluation Criteria | |
Total score 100% | Meets all the criteria necessary for an A+ grade. Well formatted and instructions sufficiently followed. Well punctuated and grammar checked. | |
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Above 60% | Has not checked for plagiarism and has not proofread the project well. Out of context, can be cited for plagiarism and grammar mistakes and not correctly punctuated, fails to adhere to the professor’s classwork materials, easy to read, well punctuated, correctness | |
Above 45% | Instructions are not well articulated. Has plenty of grammar mistakes and does not meet the quality standards needed. Needs to be revised. Not well punctuated | |
Less than 40% | Poor quality work that requires work that requires to be revised entirely. Does not meet appropriate quality standards and cannot be submitted as it is to the professor for marking. Definition of a failed grade | |
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